costs to purchase the equipment, pay for attending the sports sections, travel to competitions (payment for tickets, food, accommodation). In addition, a significant effect can be achieved by the growth of commercial indicators (sponsorship revenues) for those projects that attract a significant audience.
Territorial development[77] is another important effect of many sports projects:
• stimulation of business activity;
• creation of local jobs (including indirectly through construction projects);
• increasing the appeal of the territories and improving their image;
• contributing to the innovation and development of information and communication technologies (ICT) with sporting content;
• greater economic mobility of the population.
In the context of territorial development, it is worth mentioning a whole block of studies devoted to the assessment of economic effects produced by major sport competitions: Gureeva & Solntsev (2014), Baade & Matheson (2004), de Nooij et al. (2013), Preuss (2007), Maennig & Zimbalist (2012).
Numerous studies have documented negative effects of sports as well. For example, it is well known that physical activity can be a stimulus towards alcohol consumption (Lisha et al., 2011). Many studies point to higher rates of alcohol use among athletes compared to non-athlete peers (Leichliter et al., 1998). A common explanation is that athletes tend to celebrate their victories (or experience failure), and teaming encourages this behavior (Leasure et al., 2015).
Sports can also have a negative impact on the environment, including by increasing emissions of harmful substances. For example, Wicker (2019) surveyed adults in Germany and asked them to report their sports-related travel, including in the context of regular (weekly) activities, sports competitions/tournaments, and training camps. The annual carbon footprint was estimated using information on travel distances and vehicles used. The results showed an average annual carbon footprint of 844 kg of emissions (carbon dioxide equivalent), with individual sports providing more emissions than team sports.
Another negative effect is aggression, abusive behavior and violence against competitors and referees. One example is Roman Shirokov, former captain of the Russian national soccer team, beating referee Nikita Danchenkov during the Moscow Celebrity Cup amateur tournament[78]. Peter Dawson et al. (2022) studied the effect of abuse on match officials’ decision to leave their jobs. Based on surveys of soccer referees in France and the Netherlands, the authors investigated factors associated with verbal and physical abuse of referees, as well as the relationship of such abuse to referees’ intentions to leave the profession.
Sports can also have negative effects on relationships within the family. In particular, researchers highlight the high costs of playing sports to families (Kay, 2000; Dixon et al., 2008). Besides the financial obligations, the time costs are also increasing. Tess Kay (2000) notes that the need to exercise affects daily routines and causes changes in vacation plans and work schedules. Negative consequences can vary from increased stress and anxiety (O’Rourke et al., 2011) to decreased self-esteem and trauma (Kay, 2000). Feelings of jealousy and resentment or lack of time for other activities are also noted (Côté, 1999). Tess Kay (2000) found that some children who did not compete felt jealous of their siblings who did participate in sports and felt that their relationship with their parents was not as strong. Finally, it has been shown that parents become less active as a result of their children’s participation in sports (Dixon, 2009).
The effects generated by sports projects can be classified into positive and negative, and by the direction of the impact – in the context of the social sphere, health and economy.
According to UEFA[79], the negative effects of social sports can include injuries, doping use, corruption and the influence of gambling.
PROJECT EFFICIENCY ASSESSMENT
Several approaches can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of individual projects that use physical activity and sports to achieve social and economic effects, including expert assessment, project evaluation (and monitoring) and monetary evaluation, such as Social Return on Investment (SROI) evaluation. We will consider the similarities and differences between these approaches using the Girls on the Soccer Field project as an example. The project was implemented in Turkey in 2016. Social Return on Investment was calculated for it, and the corresponding report was certified by Social Value, an international network promoting the SROI approach[80].
DESCRIPTION OF THE “GIRLS ON THE SOCCER FIELD” PROJECT
The Girls on the Soccer Field project was created by Melis Abacıoğlu and her company Actifit in 2013. The year before that, Melis and her friends had organized a soccer game for women after their male friends refused to play against them.
The project includes the establishment of a Soccer Academy – for five days, the girls participate in soccer training, as well as creative master classes in visual and theatrical arts and creativity development. In addition, a lecture on gender equality was held for the parents of female Academy participants, who were invited to attend their daughters’ training sessions.
Several approaches can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of individual projects, including expert assessment, project evaluation (and monitoring) and monetary evaluation.
Project goals:
• Through soccer, raise awareness of gender equality and promote greater participation of girls in sports;
• Develop the girls’ creative potential through creative workshops.
EVALUATION OF SOCIAL RETURN ON INVESTMENT
The assessment began with a stakeholder analysis. The following groups were identified: girls participating in the Academy, their parents, volunteer trainers, Actifit (the organization implementing the project), donors who supported the project financially, the foundation that conducted a presentation on gender equality issues for the parents.
The next step in the evaluation process was data collection, which started immediately after the completion of the Academy. The data was mainly collected through survey. Questionnaires were developed for each stakeholder group. These included open-ended questions about participation in the various project activities and the results obtained, for example: “What did you gain from participating in the project? How did the project change your life? Were there any negative consequences of your participation in the project?”
Based on the data collected from all stakeholder
