Читаем без скачивания Английский язык. Практический курс для решения бизнес-задач - Нина Пусенкова

Actually, there are two pyramid structures – one for federal courts and one for state courts. State courts may use different terminology; for example, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts may be called superior courts or commonwealth courts.

Classification of Law.

Substantive law vs. procedural law: Substantive law creates, defines, and regulates legal rights and obligations. Procedural law defines the rules that are used to enforce substantive law.

Common law vs. statutory law: Common law is defined by judges. Statutory law is passed by legislatures. For example, the Securities Act of 1933 is statutory law.

Criminal law vs. civil law: Criminal law is between private parties and society. Civil law is between private parties only.

Jurisdiction.

Jurisdiction is the power of a court to hear a particular case. In order for a court to have jurisdiction, it must have both subject matter jurisdiction (the power to hear the type of claim being asserted) and personal jurisdiction (power over the person).

Subject Matter Jurisdiction

Article III of the U.S. constitution states that federal courts have only certain types of subject matter jurisdiction. To satisfy subject matter jurisdiction, a federal court must have either:

1. Federal question jurisdiction – federal courts have federal question jurisdiction in cases involving the federal constitution, federal statutes, or federal treaties.

Or

2. Diversity jurisdiction – diversity jurisdiction requires both a) $ 75,000 or more at issue, and b) the parties must be residents of different states. Diversity jurisdiction applies for example to a case in which a traveler passing through a different state from his/her home state is accused of a serious offense, and in which the plaintiff, attorneys, and judge may all be close friends.

Or

3. suit by or against the U.S. government.

Or

4. Miscellaneous – certain types of cases such as those related to patents, bankruptcy, admiralty (maritime cases), trademarks and copyrights, etc. Items 1) and 2) can be tried in either state or federal courts (concurrent state/federal jurisdiction). Items 3) and 4) may be heard only by federal courts.

Personal Jurisdiction.

Types of personal jurisdiction:

1. In personam – court has power over a particular person – in personam applies if minimum contact is established. For non-residents of a state, a state court may still have jurisdiction if the person travels regularly to the state on business or has a post office box in the state. Each state has its own definition of what constitutes doing business in the state, as determined by common law.

2. In Rem – a court has power if a particular piece of property is in the state.

3. Consent – when a contract specifies in which state any disputes are settled. The contract can specify a third state in which neither party does business.

Just because a case is heard by a particular state court does not mean that that state’s laws apply. The states whose laws are used can be specified in the contract. One state’s court can hear a case under another state’s laws.

Lifecycle of a Lawsuit.

In the beginning phase of a lawsuit, there is a complaint, followed by the defendant’s answer in which he or she tries to counter everything in the claim. The defendant then may file a counterclaim. Counterclaims are lawsuits within a lawsuit in which the defendant files a claim against the plaintiff. There then may be a preliminary motion, of which the outcome can be dismissed due to no legal claim based on reading the complaint, or a summary judgment in which a decision can be based on the facts of the case that are not in dispute.

The middle phase of a lawsuit is the discovery phase in which each side attempts to determine how strong their case is. The discovery phase consists of interrogations, depositions and admissions. By this point, most cases are settled.

The end phase of a lawsuit is the trial, beginning with a pre-trial conference in which the parties attempt to settle in front of a judge without going to court. The trial then proceeds with the evidence and then a judgment and possibly a post-judgment. The post-judgment may be that a new trial is necessary, such as in cases of mistrial.

The defendant usually has the right to one appeal within a certain period of time. An appeal is filed with the appellate court, there are briefs, oral arguments, and then a decision.

The judgment is enforced by first obtaining an execution that freezes the defendant’s assets. The defendant is served and the assets are levied. The defendant, however, may choose to file for bankruptcy protection, in which case all creditors are stopped, including court judgments.

Remedies.

There are two types of remedies: legal and equitable. Legal remedies are money-based and seek to financially compensate one for the damage that has occurred. Equitable remedies require a specific performance. Examples of equitable remedies are injunctions, restitution and reformation. In cases when damages are difficult to quantify, equitable remedies may be more appropriate.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. business law – право, регулирующее область деловых отношений

2. law of contract – договорное право; договорно-обязательственное право

3. civil law – римское право; внутригосударственное право (в отличие от международного права); гражданское право; позитивное право (в отличие от естественного права)

4. statute (statutory) law – статутное право; право, выраженное в законодательных актах

5. common law – общее право; англо-саксонское право

6. legal personality – правосубъектность

7. sue v – преследовать по суду; предъявлять иск или обвинение

8. tort n – деликт, гражданское правонарушение

tortious a – деликтный

9. estate n — имущество, собственность; вещно-правовой титул; сословие

10. fraud n – обман, мошенничество

fraudulent a – обманный, мошеннический

11. remedy n – средство судебной защиты

12. carriage n – перевозка; проведение, принятие голосованием

carrier n – перевозчик, фрахтовщик

13. bill of lading – коносамент

14. constitutional law – конституционное право, государственное право; конституционный закон, основной закон

15. statute n – статут (международный коллективный акт конституционного характера; закон, законодательный акт; устав)

statutory a – действующий в силу закона, основанный на законе, предусмотренный законом, статутный, законный

16. ordinance n – указ, декрет

17. precedence n – старшинство, ранг, приоритет, прецедент

precedent n – прецедент

18. judge n — судья

19. administrative law – административное право

20. labour law – трудовое право

21. employment law – трудовое право

22. Supreme Court – Верховный суд

23. Appellate (Appeal(s)) Court – апелляционный суд

24. Trial Court – суд первой инстанции

25. plea n – заявление оснований иска или обвинения или оснований защиты против иска или обвинения; аргумент; заявление, сделанное ответчиком или защитой или от имени ответчика или защиты; извинение, оправдание; иск

26. commonwealth court – суд штата (в США)

27. substantive law – материальное право

28. procedural law – процессуальное право

29. legislature n – законодательная власть, законодательный орган

30. criminal law – уголовное право

31. subject matter jurisdiction – предметная подсудность

32. personal jurisdiction – персональная юрисдикция

33. federal question jurisdiction – федеральная юрисдикция; практика федеральных судов (амер.)

34. offense n – посягательство; правонарушение; преступление

offender n – правонарушитель, преступник

offend v – оскорблять; нарушать, посягать

35. plaintiff n – истец

36. attorney n – атторней, уполномоченный, доверенный; поверенный, юрист, адвокат; прокурор

37. suit n – иск, преследование по суду, судебное дело, судебный процесс, судопроизводство

38. miscellaneous a – разнообразный, сборный

39. In personam – в отношении конкретного лица; носящий обязательственный характер (лат.)

40. In Rem – в отношении самой вещи; вещный, абсолютный (лат.)

41. consent n – совпадение воль, согласие

consent v – давать согласие, соглашаться

42. lawsuit n – судебное дело, иск, тяжба, правовой спор, судебное разбирательство, судебный процесс

43. defendant n – ответчик; обвиняемый; подсудимый

defense n – оборона; защита; обстоятельство, освобождающее от ответственности

defend v – обороняться, защищаться; защищать на суде, выступать защитником; возражать; запрещать

44. counterclaim n – встречное требование, встречный иск

45. motion n – предложение; ходатайство (в суде)

46. judgment n – судебное решение, приговор; суждение, мнение, оценка

47. discovery n – открытие; раскрытие, представление сведений, документов; обнаружение (нового факта, преступления)

48. deposition n – письменное показание под присягой; приобщение к материалам дела; приобщенное к материалам дела доказательство; низложение, свержение

49. pre-trial a – досудебный

50. post-judgment a – послесудебный

51. mistrial n – неправильное судебное разбирательство

52. brief n – (зд.) сводка, резюме; краткое письменное изложение дела; записка по делу, представляемая адвокатом в апелляционный суд

brief v – составлять сводку, резюмировать; поручать ведение дела адвокату; давать инструкции адвокату

53. freeze v – замораживать, блокировать, устанавливать контроль, вводить запрет

54. equitable а – справедливый; основанный на праве справедливости, регулируемый правом справедливости

55. injunction n – судебный запрет; запретительная норма

56. restitution n – восстановление первоначального положения

57. reformation n – внесение исправления

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What does business law regulate? 2. What are the two key areas of business law? 3. What are the fundamental legal concepts that underlie the company law? 4. What are the most common forms of legal business entities? 5. What are the key ideas of rules regulating bankruptcy? 6. What are the specifics of contracts and contractual relations? 7. What new aspects of business law are developing now? 8. What are the sources of law in the United States? 9. What are the specifics of vertical and horizontal dimensions of sources of law? 10. How is the U.S. law classified? 11. What are the different jurisdictions that exist in the U.S.? 12. How does a lawsuit normally evolve?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. In civil law countries, company law consists of statute law; in common law countries it consists partly of the ordinary rules of common law and equity and partly statute law. 2. Nearly all statutory rules are intended to protect either borrowers or taxpayers. 3. An agent is a person who is employed to bring his principal into contractual relations with third parties. 4. There are two principles that emerge in bankruptcy proceedings: to free the debtor from his debts, and to enquire into the reasons for his insolvency. 5. A contract is a legally binding agreement made by two or more persons, enforceable by the courts. 6. Business law, on national and international levels, is continually evolving with new areas of law developing in relation to consumer protection, competition, and computers. 7. Administrative law is made by local authorities that define the intent of the legislative body that passed the law. 8. In the United States, federal authority covers business association, contracts, and trade secrets. 9. In order for a court to have jurisdiction, it must have both subject matter jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction.